Political revolutions and independence movements

Unit 4
1750-1914
The Modern Era

1. Political revolutions and independence movements
   1. Major political revolutions
      1. Centralized monarchies the norm, but there’s a variety
         1. Constitutional limits in Great Britain
         2. Total autocracy in France
            1. Standard method of ruling
            2. Absolute monarch with aristocrats that control land, wealth, political influence
      2. Common strands in modern revolutions
         1. influence of the intellectual movements and ideas
            1. democratic principles of the Enlightenment
            2. Marxist principles that underlie Communism
         2. Importance of peasants and urban workers as actors in revolutions
         3. shift to authoritarian rule in movements that began as democratic uprisings
      3. Major themes
         1. Enlightenment philosophies that education and reason could improve society
            1. Spurned revolutions in N. America, France, Haiti
         2. Latin American independence movements flourished first part of 19th century
         3. Turn of the century – early 20th – Chinese dynastic rule ends
      4. United States
         1. Causes/Impetus
            1. Frustrating mercantile policy of Great Britain
               1. Drove American nuts – OK when they weren’t enforced, but…
               2. Common theme in revolutions – frustration with economic exploitation
            2. Dependent status of colonies symbolized by “no taxation without representation”
            3. Enlightenment ideas
               1. Inspired the revolution itself
                  1. John Locke – social contract
                     1. People gave rights in exchange for gov’t maintaining order
                     2. People could overthrow gov’t if they don’t
               2. Inspired the type of government that was created after it succeeded
            4. Debt from Seven Years War – French and Indian War
               1. Changed the boundaries of two empire’s worldwide possessions
               2. Felt Americans should share in costs of war
               3. Frustration with “taxation without representation”
            5. Restrictions after Seven Years War
               1. Couldn’t migrate to Appalachian territories
                  1. Brits couldn’t protect Americans w/ Native Americans
         2. Stages
            1. Noncompliance with British laws
            2. Reprisals by the British
            3. Protests: boycotts, violence, letters and declarations to the British crown
               1. Famous pamphlet – Common Sense – Thomas Paine
                  1. Before – most colonists apathetic – British sympathy
                     1. Or…Britain too strong to defeat
                  2. Said monarchy takes away from American’s natural rights
                     1. Printing press became powerful tool
            4. Cycle of escalating protests and reprisals
               1. Boston Harbor – terrorism > British troops stationed in Boston
               2. Conflict at Lexington and Concord
            5. Declaration of Independence – 1776
            6. War
            7. Alliances with Britain’s enemies
               1. France more than happy to help out
                  1. 1777 French committed ships, soldiers, weapons and money
                  2. 1781 French and British troops cornered Cornwallis
            8. Defeat of the British forces
            9. Peace Treaty, 1783
         3. Outcome/Effects
            1. Establishment of the United States of America in 1776
            2. Recognition by other nations and finally the British
            3. Loss of territory and revenues by the British
      5. France
         1. Causes/Impetus
            1. Long-term effects of rule by absolute monarchy
            2. Policies of Louix XVI
            3. National debt and financial collapse
               1. Living in lavish luxury at Versailles
               2. France’s war debts
               3. Droughts damaging French harvests
               4. Spending of Marie Antoinette
               5. Catalysts
                  1. Inflation, unemployment, poor harvests, food shortages
               6. Nobility scoff at spending restrictions
               7. Louis XVI needed to raise taxes
                  1. Unfair tax system – wealthy First/Second Estates exempt
            4. Privileges accorded the nobility; abuses
               1. Wide social and economic gap between ordinary citizens and the country’s elite
               2. Second Estate – 2% of opulation
            5. Privileges accorded the Roman Catholic Church; abuses
               1. First Estate – 1% of population
            6. Rise of the bourgeoisie; rivalry for power with nobles and Church
               1. Frustrated middle class – possessed wealth and education
               2. Seen as equals to the peasants of the Third Estate
            7. Conditions of peasants; series of poor harvests
            8. Conditions of urban workers; sans culottes
            9. Enlightenment ideas; philosophers
               1. Many of whom were French
               2. Made powerful arguments in favor of
                  1. Fair government
                  2. Equal treatment of all citizens
                  3. Separation of governmental powers
                  4. Civil rights
            10. 11. Example of the American revolution
         2. Stages
            1. Four stages
               1. Aristocrats challenge king
                  1. Louis XVI calls Estates General – hadn’t met in 175 years
                     1. Bourbon monarchs ruled through divine right
               2. Bourgeoisie challenge voting process in Estates-General
                  1. Three Estates – clergy, nobility, everybody else
                  2. Third Estate wants sweeping changes that would hurt others
                     1. Other two outvote 2-1
                     2. Third Estate declared themselves National Assembly
                        1. Tennis Court Oath
                        2. Demanded a Constitution – not just change
                  3. King pressures other two to join National Assembly
               3. Popular revolution, the people in the cities, Paris especially support bourgeoisie
                  1. Storming the Bastille – July 14, 1789 starts wave of revolution
                     1. Found out Louis XVI actually summoned troops
                     2. Sans-culottes radicals utilized for muscle
               4. Peasants in the countryside support the revolution in Paris
                  1. Peasants attack nobility and clergy
                  2. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette brought to Paris for “safety”
            2. French Republic: National Convention
               1. Adopt Declaration of the Rights of Man
                  1. Natural rights based on the Enlightenment, English Bill of Rights and the Declaration of Independence
                  2. “liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression”
                  3. Guaranteed freedoms of the press/religion – increased voting rights
                  4. These ideas swept across Europe – encouraging other revolts
                     1. Freedom, equality, rule of law
               2. Abolished the feudal system
               3. Altered the monopoly of the Catholic Church
                  1. Freedom of worship
               4. 1791 – Constitutional monarchy
                  1. Angers those who want to get rid of king
                  2. ii. Angers those who want to preserve feudal system
               5. Austria (Marie Antoinette’s home country)/Prussia invade to restore monarchy
               6. New constitution – Jacobins, National Assembly replace king > republic
               7. Reign of Terror
                  1. Afraid of foreign threats (Britain and Spain join)
                     1. Afraid of domestic chaos
                  2. Committee of Public Safety – all powerful enforcer of revolution
                     1. Beheading tens of thousands of Frenchmen
                  3. Went too far, leader Robespierre eventually beheaded
                  4. Universal male suffrage - precedent
                  5. Universal military conscription - precedent
            3. Directory
               1. Five man government – 1795
               2. Weak at dealing with domestic problems
               3. Good at building up military
                  1. Great strategy – focus on issues abroad – take mind off of domestic problems
            4. Unsolved problems
               1. Continuing war with Great Britain, Austria
               2. Corrupt politicians
               3. Bread riots
               4. Anger over policies related to the Church
               5. Growing royalist support
            5. Cycle of revolution
               1. Initially – liberal nobility + wealthy middle class
               2. This doesn’t go far enough – radical representatives of poor take over
               3. This is too radical – end up moving to middle – conservative backlash
               4. People want the good ol’ days – go back to an autocrat
         3. Outcome/effects
            1. National Assembly – Moderate Phase – 1789-1792
               1. Formal abolition of feudalism
               2. Declaration of Rights of Man and the Citizen
               3. Revocation of privileges of the Roman Catholic Church
                  1. Reorganization of the Church under the state
               4. Set up limited monarchy – Louis XVI sat on throne, but power to assembly
               5. Didn’t go far enough
                  1. Rights not extended to Jews, Protestants, blacks
                  2. Not extended to women
                     1. Major role as intellectuals, organizers, workers of Revolt
            2. National Convention – Legislative Assembly – Radical Phase – 1792-1794
               1. Abolished the monarchy and the aristocracy
                  1. As protection from foreign threat
                     1. Attack from Austria/German states
                     2. Emigres plotting return of throne
                  2. Royal family even plotted with nobles from foreign countries
                     1. Eventually captured trying to escape France
               2. Extended suffrage to more but not all male citizens
               3. People getting more ticked off
                  1. Economy worsening
                  2. Threat of foreign invasion
                     1. Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Britain try to maintain monarchy – a bit nervous about precedent
               4. Committee of Public Safety
                  1. Mobilized entire economy for combat
                  2. Instituted world’s first national draft
               5. Reign of Terror (Jacobin Club)
                  1. Searching for spies, traitors, counterrevolutionaries
                  2. Civil liberties irrelevant – no due process
                  3. Even other radical parties targeted
                  4. 300,000 arrested – 30,000 put to death
            3. Directory – Thermidorian Reaction – 1794-1799
               1. Robespierre killed
               2. 5-man council, absolute power
            4. Napoleon “asked” to assume power
               1. 1799 overthrows Directory
               2. “Voted” in as First Consul by popular vote
               3. Creates new Constitution (4th Constitution)
               4. Good or bad
                  1. Bad
                     1. wars lasted for years, cost a ton, killed a ton
                     2. Denied women basic rights
                     3. Censored speech and the press
                  2. ii. Good
                     1. Bank of France
                     2. Napoleonic Code – Civil Law Code – French law
                     3. Established universities
                     4. Granted religious freedom
               5. Domestic reforms
                  1. Agriculture, infrastructure, public education altered
                  2. Normalized relations with the Church
                  3. Restored tolerance of other religions
                  4. Napoleonic Codes – equality of Frenchmen
                     1. Paternalistic – women/children severely limited
                     2. Recognized basic rights of men
               6. External impact
                  1. Fended off aggressors and made France an aggressor
                  2. Conquered Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Italy
                  3. Dissolved Holy Roman Empire
                     1. Becomes confederacy of German states
                  4. Makes himself king of new empire
                  5. Power undermined by nationalistic uprisings and guerilla warfare
                  6. Defeated in Russia
                     1. Lured into Moscow, but then city was burned
                        1. No way to house troops, hung out to dry
                     2. Retreat back to France turns into disaster
                  7. Army decimated – Napoleon exiled
               7. Austria, Russia and Britain unite to overthrow Napoleon again upon return
                  1. Finally exiled to St. Helena – eventually dies
               8. Congress of Vienna – 1815
                  1. Maintain balance of power in Europe – no major wars for 100 yrs
                  2. France not punished, just returned borders to pre-Napoleon levels
                  3. Reaffirmed absolute rule
                     1. returned monarchs to France, Spain, Holland, Italy
                  4. Ignored ideals, rights established during French Revolution
                     1. Return Europe to the good ol days or autocracy
                     2. Agree to fight liberal reforms
                     3. Political controls actually tighten
                        1. Limited freedom of expression, press, censorship
                        2. More secret police forces
                  5. Very conservative
                  6. Peace could be secured if equilibrium of geography/military kept
                     1. Austrian Klemens von Metternich’s Congress System
                        1. Concert of Europe
               9. Impact of French Revolution
                  1. Didn’t the Revolution fail?
                     1. Dream of popular government faded – Comm Pub Safety
                        1. Napoleon a dictator
                        2. Old royal family actually restored to power
                  2. But…
                     1. It did do away with absolute monarchy
                     2. monarchs still sat on thrones – no longer all-powerful
                        1. Yield to ministers, parliaments, assemblies
                     3. Gov’ts had to be more attentive to people’s needs
                     4. Starts trend of greater popular representation
                     5. Can no longer ignore the voices of the people
                     6. Spread the ideals of the revolution outside France
                        1. Thanks to Napoleon
                     7. Creates spirit of nationalism throughout Europe
                        1. Reaction to Napoleon’s invasion
               10. Aftermath of Napoleonic Wars
                   1. Spirit of conservatism following 1815 defeat of Napoleon
                      1. Restore monarchs
                      2. Maintain balance of power to prevent future conflicts
                   2. Liberalism
                      1. Protect the rights of the properties class
                   3. Radicalism
                      1. Broader suffrage and social reforms for the lower class
                   4. Nationalism unites Italy and Germany
         4. Comparing American and French Revolutions
            1. US – colonial uprising against imperial power – independence movement
            2. French Revolution – more of a revolution
               1. Actually want to change political/economic system
               2. Not merely a transfer of power from one elite group to another
               3. Social-political structure radically changes
                  1. For US/Britain – structure remains essentially the same
            3. But US a revolution – set precedent for colonies breaking away from empires
               1. First to break away since Age of Exploration – 300 years
               2. Ideas adopted in Declaration of Independence, Constitution and French Revolution borrowed around the world
         5. Politics in Europe – 1815-1848
            1. Great Britain
               1. History of parliamentary system
               2. Slow progress toward liberties
               3. Less than 5% actually participated in parliament
               4. Lower classes lobby for more powers
                  1. Govt gradually gives in to demands to avoid rebellion
            2. France
               1. Unlike Britain’s gradual reforms, France has a few mini-revolutions
               2. Louis XVI family returns – parliamentary monarchy
               3. Replaced by “Citizen King” – but still didn’t go far enough
               4. Leads to revolution of 1848
            3. Central and Eastern Europe
               1. Remained more oppressive
               2. Prussia remained militaristic and authoritarian for years
                  1. Though technically emperor shared power with legislature
               3. Russia – tsar continued to be all-powerful
                  1. Serfdom kept people down – inefficient and kept economy back
         6. Revolution of 1848
            1. Massive disturbance that shook every country of Europe
            2. Underlying causes
               1. Impatience with over three decades of reactionary (conservative) rule
               2. Social and economic negative effects of Industrial Revolution
               3. Growth and strength of nationalism
               4. Long series of economic downturns and bad harvests – “Hungry Forties”
                  1. Irish Potato Famine – best-known, most deadly
            3. Events
               1. France – Citizen King Louis Philippe refuses reform demands
                  1. Revolts result – Napoleon’s nephew – Louis Napoleon – takes over
                  2. Metternich – “Everytime France sneezed, Europe caught cold”
               2. Ideas spread to rest of Europe
                  1. Only Britain (liberal) and Russia (ultra autocratic) weren’t effected
                  2. Revolution broke out lasting months
               3. Eventually all revolutions crushed or faded away
            4. Effects
               1. Forced king of Prussia, emperor of Austria to grant constitutional reforms
               2. Demonstrated power of nationalism
               3. Laid the groundwork for unification of Germany and Italy
               4. Political, social and economic issues of people HAVE to be met
      6. Haiti
         1. Impetus/Causes
            1. Appeal of Enlightenment ideals to creoles and mulattoes
            2. French Revolution as inspiration to slaves
            3. Success of American Revolution – maybe timing was right
               1. Revolts/uprisings before, but they always failed
               2. Now…Europe in chaos with rise and fall of Napoleon - distracted
                  1. Rebellious leaders opportunity to assert themselves
            4. French mercantilist policy
               1. exported coffee, sugar, cocoa, indigo from Haiti
               2. few large plantations with hundreds of thousands of slaves
                  1. By 1800, 90% of population slave
         2. Stages
            1. Slave insurrection of 1791
               1. Toussaint L’Ouverture – former slave
            2. Britain and Spain send troops; slaves and French join to oust them
            3. At the end of civil war, slaves freed and in power; still a French colony
            4. 1802, troops under Napoleon sent to end rule of former slaves
            5. Defeat of the French by rebels and disease
               1. Haitians capable fighters
               2. Yellow fever wipes out soldiers
               3. L’Ouverture captured and imprisoned in France
               4. Napoleon gives up attempt to reconquer Haiti
         3. Outcome
            1. Independence declared in 1804
               1. Jacques Dessalines – also slave – governor-general for life
               2. Haiti first independent nation in Latin America
            2. Civil war among rival factions
            3. Independent republic established in 1820
         4. Long term effects
            1. Napoleon chose to abandon effort to maintain French colonies in North America
            2. Sold vast Louisiana Territory to US for bargain
               1. Gave US control of the N. American continent
               2. Brought about major shift in global power – enter US
      7. Latin American Wars of Independence
         1. Causes
            1. Growing sense of national identity – same as US
            2. Local resentment of Spanish/Portuguese economic policies – same as US
            3. Frustration of American born Creole upper and middle class
               1. Would never be seen as equal to European born rulers
            4. Spark/catalyst was Napoleon
               1. Confusion over who was ruling
               2. Perfect opportunity to take advantage
         2. Political difficulties of 19th century Latin America
            1. Freedom alone did not bring about good government, social justice, health economy
            2. Political breakdown – instead of a few states, many independent smaller states
            3. Failure of constitutional rule
               1. Based on Napoleonic Law, US and French revolutions
               2. But…imposed artificially on Latin America
               3. Because there was no tradition of constitutions, civil liberties, political right
                  1. It all just became words…red alert – consider connection to Iraq
            4. Prevalence of dictatorial/military rule
               1. Caudillos – military/political strongmen
                  1. personal charisma, military force and/or oppression
               2. Reformers and liberals try to change, but doesn’t happen
         3. Economic backwardness
            1. Hundreds of years of shaping toward merely extracting natural resources
            2. Emphasized monoculture – one major crop – or a few crops
            3. Created condition that required importing finished goods
            4. Required large reserves of slaves/cheap labor to survive
            5. Failure to diversify economies means plantation owners need to recreate conditions to turn a profit
            6. Slow to modernize/industrialize
         4. Social and Racial Divisions
            1. Social inequality persisted regardless of laws
            2. People of mixed race, Indians, blacks victims of informal prejudice
            3. Economic income gap only worsened in 1800s
            4. Slavery even continued into 1800s in Brazil and Cuba
         5. Huge foreign influence persisted
            1. United States sets up sphere of influence
            2. Europeans either install or influence who will be leader
      8. Mexico (Revolution #1) – 1810>1820
         1. Impetus/Causes
            1. Revolution in Haiti
            2. Distraction of Spain by its war with France
         2. Stages
            1. El Grito de Dolores! Call to arms by priest
               1. Miguel Hidalgo – Creole priest – sympathized with Spanish abused
               2. led mestizos and Native Americans in rebellion in 1810
               3. Easily put down by Spanish – revolt – Hidalgo killed
            2. Fighting continued under new leader, killed in 1815; some scattered fighting
               1. Jose Morelos – picked up where Hidalgo left off
               2. Fought the loyalists
                  1. Landowners turned against when he claimed redistributing land
                  2. 1815 Morelos executed
            3. 1821 conservative creole joins with rebels and declares Mexico independent empire
            4. 1823 emperor overthrown by liberals
            5. 1824 republic created
         3. Outcome/Effects
            1. First rebellions demanded reforms such as abolition of slavery
            2. Lack of support from creoles for insurrection; collapsed
            3. Under republic, after years of turmoil, little change for ordinary mestizos/Natives
            4. French occupation
            5. Reforms instituted under Benito Juares
      9. Mexico (Revolution #2) – 1910-1917
         1. Impetus/Causes
            1. Long dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz
            2. Unequal distribution of wealth: a few wealthy landowners and mass of desperately poor peasants, factory workers, miners
            3. Liberal reformers
         2. Stages
            1. Demand for free elections; Diaz resigns
            2. Succeeded by Francisco Madero as president; murdered after two years
            3. Civil War: Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata
            4. 1917 election – Venustiano Carranza as president
         3. Outcome/effects
            1. Constitution of 1917 still in effect
               1. Broke up large landholdings
               2. Nationalized ownership of natural resources and Church property
               3. Restricted religion
               4. Provided for minimum wage
               5. Extended suffrage to all males
      10. China
          1. Impetus/Causes
             1. Increasing power of foreign nations
             2. Defeat in Sino-Japanese war in 1895
             3. Spread of reform ideas among Western-educated Chinese
             4. Discontent of poor rural peasants
             5. Grant of power to provincial governments by Qing in an effort to stem uprisings
          2. Stages
             1. Abortive rebellions in late 1800s
             2. Leadership of Dowager Empress Cixi
                1. Concubine that “ruled” for nephew into adulthood
                2. More oppressive rule
                   1. Opposed all reform – pro-Western treason
                   2. Even arrested nephew/killed reformers when they tried “Hundred Days Reform”
                3. Outlying possessions slipped away – Tibet, Gobi Desert, Mongolia
             3. Chinese Revolution of 1911
                1. Provincial secessions
                2. Declaration of republic
             4. Empire under Yuan shih-K’ai
             5. Years of civil war and chaos
             6. Establishment of republic in 1927 under Nationalist/Kuomintang Party
          3. Outcome/effects
             1. Abdication of Qing (Manchu) emperor in 1912
             2. Yuan declares self emperor – dies in 1916
             3. Warlords in power across China
             4. Unification of much of China begun under Sun Yat-sen
                1. Sun Yat-sen – father of modern China
                   1. United a number of opposition groups – Revolutionary Alliance
                   2. Military takeover that would become constitutional democracy
                   3. People’s Principles
                      1. Nationalism – opposition to Manchu Rule
                      2. Democracy
                      3. People’s Livelihood
                   4. Actually in America when revolt started
                2. Chinese Republic – 1912 – Sun as president
                   1. Nationalist Party – Kuomintang
                   2. 1st time in history ruled not by imperial dynasty/foreign conqueror
                      1. Politician brought to power by popular action
                   3. Sun eventually forced to step down
                   4. Civil war results
                3. Aided by Soviets
             5. Chiang Kai-shek successor to Sun
                1. Leads nationalist republic
             6. Fight for control of China with Communists under Mao Zedong
      11. Latin America
          1. Venezuela
             1. Cause
                1. Disputed authority – Napoleon appoints brother Joseph Bonaparte to Spanish throne
                   1. Who to follow – Spanish or French?
             2. Events
                1. Simon Bolivar – Venezuelan leader
                   1. Enlightened educated – traveled to Europe/United States
                   2. Establishes national congress
                   3. Royalists – defenders of crown – declare war
                2. Bolivar wins – envisions United States like South America
                   1. Gran Colombia results – Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela
                   2. Other nations become independendent
          2. Argentina
             1. Cause
                1. Disputed authority – see French/Spanish issue above
             2. Events
                1. Jose de San Martin – American-born Spaniard (Creole)
                   1. Officer in Spanish army defects and leads rebels
                2. Joins with Bernardo O’Higgins of Chile
                3. Take revolution through Argentina, Chile, Peru
                4. By 1820s, huge chunk of South America freed from Spanish rule
          3. Brazil
             1. Cause
                1. Napoleon invaded – Portuguese king – John VI flees to Brazil
                   1. Sets up Portuguese government from Brazil
                   2. 1821 – Napoleon defeated, so John returns to Portugal
                   3. But…leaves behind his son Pedro to rule
             2. Events
                1. Pedro was 23, spend entire life in Brazil
                2. Declares independence for Brazil and makes himself emperor
                3. 1831 Pedro gives power to sequel Pedro II – rules most of 19th century
                   1. So…Brazil had early advantage of stable monarchy/gov’t through independence
                   2. Accomplishments
                      1. Abolished slavery in 1888
                         1. Angers landowning class – they revolt in 1889
                         2. Set up a republic
                      2. Major exporter of coffee
          4. Effects of Latin American independence movements
             1. Europe booted out of vast chunks of American continents during 50 year period
             2. But…independence not accompanied by widespread freedom
                1. Slavery still existed for decades
                2. Peasants still worked on huge plantations owned by few landowners
                3. Middle class/merchant class didn’t emerge
                4. Enlightenment ideas didn’t spread beyond landowning class
             3. Why weren’t changes in South America?
                1. Catholic Church remained very powerful in Latin America
                   1. Many priests fought for peasants, some martyred selves
                   2. But…Church hierarchy wanted to maintain status quo
                   3. Church – one of largest landowners in Latin America
                2. Economies largely dependent on Europe
                   1. Still participated in European mercantilism
                   2. Specialized in a few cash crops
                      1. Didn’t diversify – similar to US South
                   3. Exported almost exclusively to Europe
             4. Exceptions
                1. Chile diversified economy fairly successfully
                2. Brazil and Argentina had some social reforms/broadened economies
                   1. Middle class results
      12. Russia
          1. Keeps control over vast territory by giving absolute power to czars
             1. Majority of people serfs with no rights
             2. Alexander I and Nicholas I used secret police to squash rebellions/reform
          2. Reforms
             1. 1860s Alexander II – Emancipation Edict – abolish serfdom
                1. Serfs given small plots of land
                   1. Had to give huge payments to the government
                   2. Difficult to improve situation
                   3. Some move to cities to work in industries – harsh conditions
             2. Beginning of some arts flourish
                1. Tolstoy – Anna Karenina and War and Peace
                2. Dostoyevsky – The Brothers Karamazov
                3. Tchaikovsky – Swan Lake and Nutcracker
             3. Russification – all Russians had to learn Russian language/convert to Orthodoxy
                1. Anyone who didn’t comply was persecuted – especially Jews
             4. Nicholas II doesn’t react to revolution
                1. Socialists began to organize
                2. Tried to rally Russians around the flag, but humiliated against Japanese
             5. Moderates march on czar’s palace peacefully – ask for reform
                1. Czar sends his troops against protesters – Bloody Sunday – 1905
             6. In response, Czar attempts legislative reforms
                1. Appoints Prime Minister – Peter Stolypin
                2. Creates Duma
                   1. Has no real power
                   2. Everytime they’re about to make a change, czar disbands
      13. India
          1. Educating native elite backfired
             1. Larger numbers of these educated agitated for freedom
             2. Saw that it was hypocritical for British not to apply liberties to India
          2. Indian National Congress – 1885
             1. English speaking, educated members of upper class
             2. Most influential – Mohandas K. Gandhi – 1869
                1. Lived in S. Africa from 1893-1915
                   1. Defended rights of Indian workers living under apartheid
                2. Returned to India as central figure in freedom movement
                   1. Policy of nonviolent resistance
   2. Major independence movements
      1. Latin American independence movements
         1. Mexico’s revolution unique
            1. Revolution of mestizos and Native Americans
         2. Other Latin American revolutions
            1. Led by wealthy, educated creoles
            2. Newly independent nations replaced governing peninsulares with elite creoles
            3. Little changed for the majority of the people
               1. Mestizos
               2. Mulattoes
               3. Native Americans
            4. Causes/Impetus
               1. Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin
                  1. creoles both familiar with Enlightenment writings
               2. Spain engaged in wars with Napoleon
            5. Stages
               1. Between 1808>1824 all Spanish colonies became independent nations
            6. Outcome/Effects
               1. Bitter rivalries for power led to civil wars and more turmoil and suffering
               2. Little social, political, economic reform accomplished in former Spanish colonies
               3. Legacy of caudillo, strong man/military ruler, as head of government
   3. New political ideas
      1. Rise of nationalism
         1. Consequences of Napoleonic era was intensified nationalism
            1. Feelings of connection to one’s own home, region, language, culture
      2. Marxism
      3. Liberalism
      4. Conservatism
      5. Anarchism
      6. Rise of nation-states
         1. Unifications
            1. Italy and Germany were still feudal
               1. Center of warfare among the European powers
               2. Italy and Germany eventually unify which changes balance of power
            2. Italy
               1. Status before unification
                  1. Mid-19th century – tangle of foreign controlled small kingdoms
                     1. Austria has North
                     2. France has Rome and Papal States
                     3. Spain has two Sicilies in the South
                     4. Only Sardinia controlled by Italians
               2. Events toward unification
                  1. Victor Emmanuel II – king of Sardinia + Count Camillo Cavour
                     1. Both Sardinians push nationalism
                  2. First Cavour sides with Europeans to kick out Austrians
                  3. Giuseppi Garibaldi – Italian nationalist kicks out Spain
                  4. By 1861 most of Spain unified under Victor Emmanuel
                  5. Sided with Prussia to push out Austria
                  6. France withdraws in 1870
               3. Effects
                  1. Some still upset that parts of Austria and France aren’t Italian too
                  2. Tough to unify culturally since it had developed regionally
                  3. But…now able to assert itself on the world stage
                     1. Impacts Europe in the next century
            3. Germany
               1. Status before unification
                  1. German and Austrian Empire provinces not united since Holy Roman Empire
                     1. After Peace of Westphalia – Austria/Prussia dominated
                  2. Prussia under Frederick the Great pushed Industrial Revolution
                     1. Supported education – talented workforce
               2. Events toward unification
                  1. William I in 1861 appoints Otto von Bismarck prime minister
                     1. Goal – build the military
                     2. Consolidating the region under Prussia’s authority
                        1. Defeated Austria, convinced Europe to not help
                        2. More wars to bring in other German regions
                        3. Brings in Catholic German states through war
                           1. Unite against France in 1870
                  2. King William II then emperor of the German Empire
                     1. Second Reich – “second empire”
                     2. First Reich – “Holy Roman Empire”
               3. Effects
                  1. Germany quickly industrializes
                     1. Strong economic/political power
                  2. William II forced Bismarck to give up role
                     1. Becomes undisputed emperor in 1888
                     2. Built huge navy
                     3. Pursued colonial ambitions in Africa and Asia
                  3. Germany becomes world power
                     1. By 1914, thought they could take on anyone
      7. Movements of political reform
         1. Gradual Move Toward Representative Government
            1. 2nd half of century moved toward representative govt
            2. Why?
               1. Industrialization, modernization, urbanization, population growth
                  1. Too many issues for one man to handle
            3. Even in less democratic nations, power still spread to advisers, agencies, ministries and institutions
         2. Reform and Democracy in Great Britain
            1. Liberal and Conservative parties agreed to expand suffrage
               1. Second and Third Reform Acts – 1867/1885 – universal suffrage
            2. Problems still existed
               1. Aristocracy trying to retain privileges
               2. Growing middle class has ambitions of higher status
               3. Enormous working class striving for equality
                  1. Labour Party ends up replacing liberal (middle class) party
               4. Irish home rule
                  1. Should North – split Catholic/Protestant remain British or Irish
                  2. Should Ireland be set free
         3. Democracy in France
            1. Louis Napoleon renamed himself Napoleon III
               1. Cancelled out some of the post-1848 liberties
               2. Deposed after losing Franco-Prussian war of 1871
            2. 1871 onward – France becomes democratic republic – universal suffrage
               1. Fourth Republic
               2. Still had problems
                  1. Corruption and financial scandal
                  2. Dreyfus Affair – Jewish officer accused of selling secrets to Germ
                     1. Exposed anti-Semitism
                     2. Pitted left vs. right – innocent vs. guilty
         4. Unification of Italy and Germany
            1. Showed power of nationalism – more powerful than demand for democracy
            2. Unified through combination of war and diplomatic intrigue/maneuvering
               1. Garibaldi – Italy
               2. Von Bismarck - Germany
         5. Austria-Hungary
            1. More conservative, but moved away from autocracy
            2. 1861 Emperor Franz Josef shared power with parliament
            3. Struggled on how much power to give to ethnic minorities
               1. Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Italians, Hungarians
               2. Minorities want autonomy – self-determination
               3. 1867 – Largest minority forced Austrians to give power
                  1. Augsleich – “compromise” – becomes Austria-Hungary
         6. Germany
            1. Had to make concessions to growing working class
               1. Trade unions and socialism growing in power/influence
            2. Universal suffrage for Reichstag
               1. But…upper class votes weighed more than lower-class votes
            3. Laws for employment benefits
               1. unemployment insurance
               2. disability insurance
               3. pensions
               4. shorter work day
               5. Some workers actually better off than western world
         7. Russia
            1. Remained most autocratic
            2. No constitution, and until 1905 – no elected body
            3. Following embarrassing defeat in Crimean War – 1853-856
               1. Tsar Alexander II forced to implement liberal reforms
                  1. Modernize Russia
                  2. Emancipation of serfs in 1861
                  3. Lightened censorship
                  4. Widened powers of local government
                  5. 1881 – Alexander II assassinated by radical terrorists
               2. Future tsars reversed policies
            4. 1905 – Uprising forces Nicholas II to share power with Duma
               1. But…Nicholas II ignored or disbanded Duma – neutered
         8. Japan
            1. Tokugawa Shogunate in the 18th century
               1. Ruled by Tokugawa clan – seized control in 1600s
               2. Technically authority with emperor, reality with shogunate
               3. Top of society – samurai – warrior class
               4. Early successes
                  1. Helped centralize Japan
                  2. Transformed from warring collection of states to peaceful country
               5. Problems
                  1. Highly dictatorial
                  2. Stratified society with no chance for social mobility
                  3. Few personal freedoms – people left out of politics
                  4. Isolated self from rest of the world
                     1. Only relations with Korea, some China, Dutch – Nagasaki
            2. Meiji Restoration
               1. Meiji Restoration of 1868 began Japan’s modern age
                  1. Irony – rebellion anti-Western in nature, but
                     1. Must embrace West to survive/compete
                  2. Revolution from above
                     1. Meiji’s govt radically alters politics, economics, social
               2. Politics
                  1. Abolishes feudalism
                     1. Samurai have positions of power
                     2. No hereditary privileges
                     3. Stop payment to samurai
                     4. Samurai couldn’t wear swords
                  2. Formal law code – Civil Code of 1898 drawn up
                  3. Constitution of 1890 – elected parliament – Diet
                     1. Suffrage quite low – 5% - property qualifications
                     2. Emperor still has power over Diet
                     3. Created oligarchy – rule by Meiji and advisors
                     4. Less restrictive, but hardly representative
                     5. Women ignored – second class citizens
                        1. But…had some power with new working jobs
                  4. Regional governments now run by prefects – state appointed
               3. Economics
                  1. Modern efficiency – peasant #s decrease, productivity increases
                  2. Industrialization
                     1. Sent young members of upper class to train in W. Europe
                        1. Engineering, economics, military
                     2. Ministry of Industry in 1870
                     3. State banks gave financing to growing industries
                     4. New railroads, steamships, ports, canals built
                     5. Zaibatsu – state sponsored huge corporations
                     6. Encouraged private enterprise
                  3. Negatives of Industrialization
                     1. Taxes for farmers goes up
                     2. Working conditions for laborers goes down
                        1. Nagasaki – temps. up to 130, shot for escaping
                     3. Labor unions forbidden
               4. Social
                  1. Rigid social hierarchy of Tokugawa ended
                  2. Access to political positions increasingly based on merit
                     1. Civil service exam
                  3. Middle class power grows
                     1. No longer negative stigma about trade and artisanship
                  4. Negatives for lower class
                     1. Farmers taxed heavily
                     2. Industrial workers live/work in horrible conditions
                  5. But…for lower class
                     1. state funded education
                     2. now allowed to serve in military
                     3. population skyrocketed – 35 million 1873 > 55 in 1918
      8. Democracy
         1. Rise
         2. Limitations
         3. Reform
         4. Women
            1. Women’s movements
               1. Founder – Mary Wolstonecraft – English writer
                  1. A Vindication of the Rights of Women – 1792
                  2. Equal rights – education, political, economic pursuits
               2. France – playwright Olympes de Gouges – argues for suffrage
            2. “Women Question” – what is their sphere/role
               1. “cult of true womanhood”
                  i. Virtues of submissiveness, piety, domesticity, modesty, femininity
               2. Feminists
                  1. Women were individuals with different strengths and abilities
                  2. Permitted to develop them without social restrictions
            3. Early phases of reform
               1. 1830s in US/Europe
               2. Focused on reforming family/divorce laws – own property/divorce
               3. Frustrated – lack of civil rights made it difficult ot argue for other causes
                  1. slavery, temperance, improving schools, helping poor
               4. Jobs – teaching/nursing – women’s sphere
               5. Building social welfare institutions
                  1. Providing aid to orphaned children/poor
            4. Next phase – mid century
               1. Pushed for suffrage
               2. Led by women of the upper class
               3. US suffragettes called for better working conditions/right to vote
               4. Took leadership roles in banning alcohol, child welfare, labor reform
            5. Not granted right to vote until after World War I
               1. Early exceptions – Norway, Finland, handful of US states in the West
         5. Racism
   4. Overlaps between nations and empires