Chapter 31 - The War to End War 1917-1918

 

Major Themes

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• America’s war effort produced profound economic, political, and social changes
• Practicality of Wilson’s Fourteen Points

 

Major Questions

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• How did the US mount a “total” war effort? What measures were necessary top accomplish this?
• What circumstances led to the defeat of the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations by the US Senate?

Outline

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War by Act of Germany

• To defend American interests short of war, the president asked Congress for authority to arm American merchant ships.
• A band of midwestern senators launched a filibuster to block the measure and Wilson denounced them as a "little group of willful men" who were rendering a great nation "helpless and contemptible", but their obstruction was a reminder of the continuing strength of American isolationism.
• The Zimmermann note was intercepted and published on March 1, 1917 infuriating Americans especially westerners.
  • The German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmermann had secretly proposed a German-Mexican alliance, with veiled promises to Mexico of recovering Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
• Following the Zimmermann notes German U-boats sank four unarmed American merchant vessels in the first two weeks of March.
  • The President lost a gamble that America could pursue neutral trade without being sucked into maelstrom
• Wilson at last asked Congress for a declaration of war on the evening of April 2, 1917.
• In later years a myth developed that Americ was dragged unwittingly into war by munitions makers and Wall Street bankers who were desperate to protect their profits and loans.
• The weapons merchants and financiers though, were already thriving uneffected by wartime gov't restrictions and heavy taxation.
• America declared war on April 6, 1917
  • Held the trademark "Made In Germany"

Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned

• It fell to the Scholarly Wilson who was deeply respectful of American traditions, to shatter one of the most sacred of those traditions by entangling America in a distant European war.
  • Posed a threat to the leadership skills of Wilson
• For more than a century Americans had prided themselves on their isolationism from the periodic outbursts of militarized violence that afflicted the Old World, and now German U-boats had roughly shoved America into the abyss.
• Many in Congress had voted against the war resolution
• Wilson could not get any enthusiasm, especially in the Midwest, by fighting to make the world safe from the submarine.
• Wilson would have to claim more glorified aims, he declared the twin goals of "a war to end war" and a crusade "to make the world safe for democracy"
• He won over the nation with his lofty ideals. He contrasted the selfish war aims of the others with America's shining altruism.
• Wilson genuinely believed in the principles he so eloquently intoned.
• Probably no other appeal could have successfully converted the American people from their historic hostility to involvement in European squabbles.
• Wilson's appeal worked-perhaps too good.
  • He fired up the public mind to a fever pitch

Wilson’s Fourteen Potent Points

• Wison quickly came to be recognized as the moral leader of the Allied cause.
• He delievered his famed Fourteen Points Address to an enthusiastic Congress on January 8, 1918.
• Although one of his primary purposes was to keep reeling Russia in the war, his vision inspired all the Allies to make mightier efforts and demoralized the enemy gov'ts by holding out alluring promises to their dissatisfied minorities.
• The first 5 of the Fourteen Points were broad in scope.
  • 1- A proposal to abolish secret treaties pleased liberals of all countries.
  • 2- Freedom of the seas appealed to Germans, as well as to Americans who distrusted British sea power.
  • 3- A removal of economic barriers among nations was comforting to Germany, which feared postwar vengeance.
  • 4- A reduction of armament burdens was gratifying to taxpayers everywhere.
  • 5- An adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and the colonizers was reassuring to the anti-imperialists.
• The other points proved no less seductive.
• They held out the hope of independence to oppressed minority groups, such as the Poles.
• Point number 14 forshadowed the League of Nations- which was an international organization the Wilson dreamed would provide a system of collective security.
  • Felt that the League of Nations would create worldwide political independence and territorial integrity for all nations
• Wilson's appealing points were not everywhere applauded.

Creel Manipulates

• Mobilizing people's minds for war was an urgent task facing the Washington authorities.
• The Committee on Public Information was created for this purpose
  • It was headed by journalist George Creel who was gifted with zeal and imagination and whose job was to sell America on the war and sell the world on Wilsonian war aims.
• The Creel organization employed some 150,000 workers at home and overseas, proved that words were indeed weapons.
• It sent out 75,000 "four-minute men", who often were longer-winded than that, to deliver speeches containing much "patriotic pep"
• Creel's propaganda came in varied forms.
  • Posters were splashed on billboards.
  • Leaflets and pamphlets
  • Propaganda bookelets.
• The entire nation catching the frenzied spirit of a religious revival burst into song.
• Creel typified American war mobilization, which relied more on aroused passion and voluntary compliance than on formal laws.
• But he oversold the ideals of Wilson and led the world to expect too much.

Enforcing Loyalty and Stifling Dissent

• German-Americans numbered over 8 million, on the whole the proved to be dependably loyal to the US
• Rumormongers thought, were quick to spread stories of spying and sabotage.
• A few German-Americans were tarred, feathered, and beated and in one extreme case a German Socialist was lynched by a drunken mob.
• As emotion mounted, hatred of Germans and things Germanic swept the nation.
• Orchestras found it unsafe to present German-composed music, German books were removed from library shelves, and German classes were cancled in high schools and colleges.
• The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 reflected current fears about Germans and anti war Americans.
• Especially visible among the 1,900 prosecutions undertaken under these laws were antiwar Socialist and members of the radical Industrial Workers of the World.
• Virtually and critiscism of the gov't could be censored and punished.
• Some critics claimed the new laws were bending, if not breaking, the First Amendment.
• In Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court affirmed the laws legality arguing that freedom of speech could be revoked when such speech pased a "clear and present danger" to the nation.

The Nation’s Factories Go to War

• The nation was not ready to go to war
• Wilson had only mild preparations that were from 1915
  • Council of National Defense
  • Ship building program
  • Addition of 100,000 to the army
• Ignorance was a big roadblock
  • No one knew how much steel or gunpowder the nation could produce
• In March 1918 Bernard Baruch was appointed to head the War Industries Board
  • Had to be disbanded days after the armistice

 

Suffering Until Suffrage

• Women were forced to take up various roles in society during the War
  • This caused a delay in the women's movement
  • Most of the women were pacifists and were inclined to the war altogether
• The majority of the women were represented by the National American Women's Suffrage Association which supported the war
  • They argued that women must have a role as a way to shape the Peace
  • Winning democracy abroad was the best way to own democracy at home for women
• Wilson endorsed women's suffrage due to their hard work
• In 1920 the 19th amendment was ratified giving them suffrage
• After the war many women gave up their jobs and returned to their normalcy
• The Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921 gave financial aid and health care

Forging a War Economy

• preperation for war was primarily derived from inspiring a sense of partiotism instead of implementing law
• Hoover, head of the food administration set an example of using propaganda to rally support
  • used posters, billboards, newspapers, etc
  • soon delcared "meatless tuesdays" and "wheatless wednesdays" all on voluntary basis
  • led to an increase in self restraint due to voluntary rationing<- helped prohibition
  • voluntary approach proved very effective
• other departments adopted this method of propaganda
• gov't also put extreme pressure on citizens to buy war bonds
• Wilson administration primatily relid on voluntary means of war support but did occasionally use gov't power

Making Plowboys into Doughboys

• most americans did not initally want to enter the war despite their support for the allies' cause
• in 1917 the allies requested american military intervention
• the american gov't needed to amass a quick army was fjorced to pass a conscription law
  • draft was fair and could not bo bought out of
• army grew drastically in only a few months
• though recruits were supposed to recieve 8 months of training many recived very little

Fighting in France – Belatedly

• with the removal of russian troops from the allied force american soldiors became even more essential
• american troops often were undertrained
• shipping proved a challenge for the allied powers
• Americans primarily served in france however they also served in belgium,italy, and russia

The Fourteen Points Disarm Germany

• germans, now ready to admit defeat turned to wilson to garuntee a fair treaty
  • they counted on a treaty based on the fourteen points, which did not happen
• Wilson demanded that the Kaiser be removed before any formal negotiations would begin
• This was done and the German's quickly ceased fighting
• Americans primarily contrubuted by was of supplies rather than military action, however the prospect of seemingly endless American troops had a strong demoralizing effect on the Germans

Wilson Steps Down From Olympus

• Expectations were high for Wilson's plans for reshaping the peace after success in the war
  • At the end of the war, Wilson was at the peak of his popularity & power
  • Wilson was cherished by some Europeans, no other man ever occupied such a pinnacle as moral leader of the world
  • Wilson had prestige of victory, & economic resources from mightiest nation behind him
• Then he began making tragic fumbles-
  • "Politics Is Adjourned" kept partisan political strife out of view during war
    • Wilson broke the truce by appealing for a Dem. victory in Congress election(Nov. 1918) in hopes to strengthen his hand at the Paris peace table
    • Plan backfired when voters put Republican majority back in Congress
    • Wilson went to Paris defeated & the only one that didn't control a legislative majority at home
  • Wilson ticked off the Republicans:
    • Republicans enraged that Wilson went to Paris in person to help make peace bc no pres. had ever gone to Europe & his trip looked like a "flamboyant grandstanding" to critics
    • Snubbed Senate during assembly of his peace delegation & didn't include any Republican senators in his official party

An Idealist Battles the Imperialists in Paris

• the common people belived wilson a hero of morality, but politicians kept him at arms length fearing that his presance might sow the seeds of revolution
• representatives of America, France, Italy, and Britian had the most influence over the treaty
• efficiency was very important due to ensuing anarchy after the war
• Wilson's primary goal was to establis the League of Nations
• he also wasnted to prevent any biased distrobution of Germany's colonial holdings
  • in this he failed b/c though the territories were not colonies per se the mother nathion sill treated them as such
• in Feburary 1919 most European diplomats agreed to join the League of Nations

 

The Peace Treaty That Bred a New War

• The Treaty of Versailles was given to the Germans in June of 1919
• Germans had believed that peace would be granted based on the Fourteen Points
  • Only a few of these points were actually honored
• Compromise was needed at Paris because the Allied Powers were torn by secret treaties and individualistic goals
  • Wilson was forced to give up a few of the points in order to protect his more important
• Wilson was not happy with the results of the treaty because the League of Nations was not powerful
• though Wilson did not achieve many of his goals and recognized the injustice of the treaty it was still much fairer b/c of him

The Domestic Parade of Prejudice

• Returning for the second time to America, Wilson sailed straight to political typhoon
  • Isolationists protested the treaty, especially the US atmitance into the League of Nations
  • Critics also abused him about the Treaty of Versailles
• The pact was criticized due to its harshness, while others thought it was not harsh enough
• Many Americans of recent forgien descent opposed the treaty for not benefitting thier own nation enough
• Irish-Americans denounced the League as well
  • They felt that Britain was given power that was not needed or deserved

Wilson's Tour and Collapse

• The President had a reason to be optomistic even with the mounting discontent
  • The people still seemed favorable and the "Wilson League" was strongly stable in Part I
• Senator Lodge was not able to defeat the Treaty at this time, he wanted to "Americanize It"
• Wilson went on a tour of speeches in order to appeal to the confused public about the treaty
  • Began in September 1919
  • His campaign was undertaken by protests by physicians and friends
  • People wanted to impeach him after angry Senators presented a few days later
  • The reaction in the West was much warmer and welcoming
• Wilson was forced back to Washington when a stroke paralyzed half of his body

The Solemn Referendum of 1920

• Wilson proposed to settle treaty issue in the upcoming 1920 pres. campaign by appealing to the people for a "solemn referendum"
• June 1920, Republicans met in Chicago, creating a vague platform that could appeal to pro-League-ers & anti-League-ers w/in the party
• Ohio Senator Warren G. Harding was favored & nominated
  • Harding was a prosperous, small-town newspaper editor
  • Mass. Governor Calvin Coolidge nominated for VP
    • gained conservative support by breaking up a police strike in Boston
• Democrats nominated Ohio Governor James M. Cox
  • Dem. VP nominee was Assisstant Navy Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt of NY
• Democrats attempted to make the campaign a referendum on the League but Harding challenged efforts by issuing contradictory statements on the issue
• Both pro- & anti-League Republicans claimed Harding's election would propel their cause, but Harding suggested that he would work for a vague Association of Nations, not the League
• Harding won w/ over 7million votes, 16,143,407 to 9,130,328 for Cox, the electoral count was 404 to 127
  • W/ 919,799 votes, Eugene V. Debs, a federal prisoner, won the largest amount of votes ever for a left-wing Socialist party
• People were tired of pro. high-browism, star-reaching idealism, do-goodism, moral strain, & self-sacrifice
• Eager to get back to normal & accept a 2nd-rate pres. but got a 3rd-rate one
• Republican isolationists successfully turned Harding's victory into death for the League

The Betrayal of Great Expectations

• The inablility to spawn the League of Nations as a powerful Worldwide Peace organization showed America's shortcomings
  • There is no way to tell is this would have averted WWII
  • America was blamed for the failure by the rest of the Allied forces
• The failure of the Treaty of Versailles was also blamed on America
  • The American aspect of the Treaty was never put into place,allowing for the failure of the Treaty
• The Senate formed a treaty with France fearing that the new generation of Germans would form arms illegally